Table 1 Overview of in vivo studies of the effects of nano- and microplastic exposure on the gut epithelium. *This has been calculated by the authors based on Bachmanov AA et al. Behav Genet 2002 [73]
From: Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: a review of the literature
Reference | Nano-microplastics | Dosage | Duration of exposure | Route of exposure | Species | Observed effects related to the gut epithelium |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Invertebrates | ||||||
Lei et al., Sci Total Environ. 2018 [74] | Polyamides, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene 0.1 to 70 μm | 5 mg m− 2 | 2 days | Added to the nematode’s growth medium | Nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) | ↓ intestinal calcium levels ↑ glutathione S-transferase 4 enzyme expression |
Wang et al., Chemosphere 2019 [75] | Polystyrene 10 μm | 10 particles/mL | 14 days | Culture medium | Zooplankton (Artemia parthenogenetica) larvae | Histological deformation and destructuring of the intestinal epithelium |
Paul-Pont et al., Environmental Pollution 2016 [76] | Polystyrene microbeads (2 and 6 μm) | 32 μg/L | 7 days | Supplied with Chaetoceros mueller algae as a food source | Mussel (Mytiulus spp) | In digestive gland ↓ catalase activity ↓ glutathione reductase activity ↓ lipid peroxidation |
Brandts et al., Sci Total Environ 2018 [77] | Polystyrene 110 nm | 0.05 to 50 mg/L | 96 h | Tank water | Mussel (Mytiulus galloprovincialis) | In digestive gland ↑ Hsp70 mRNA levels, total oxidant status, total antioxidant capacity, and lipid peroxidation |
Revel et al., Frontiers in Environmental Science 2019 [78] | Commercial polyethylene and polystyrene mixture (< 400 μm) | 0.008, 10, 100 μg/l | 10 days | Tank water | Mussel (Mytilus spp.) | ↓glutathione S transferase and superoxide dismutase activities (at 100 μg/L) ↑superoxide dismutase and catalase activities (at 0.008 and 10 μg/L) |
Vertebrates | ||||||
Asmoniate et al., Environ. Sci.Technol. 2018 [79] | Polystyrene 100–400 μm | 10 mg /fish/day | 4 weeks | Food | Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | No variations in paracellular permeability, intestinal tight junction and cytokines mRNA expression, or ion transport |
Huang et al., Sc Total Environ. 2020 [80] | Polystyrene; 32–40 μm | 100 and 1000 μg/L | 28 days | Tank water | Juvenile guppy (Poecilia reticulata) | ↓ digestive enzymes activity ↑ goblet cells secretion ↑ gut secretion of TNFα, IFNγ and IL6 |
Ahrendt et al., Mar Pollut Bull 2020 [81] | Poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) 8 μm | 0.02 and 0.2 g/g food | Once a day for45 days | Diet | Juvenile intertidal fish (Girella laevifrons) | Dose-dependent whole intestine histological damage: leukocyte infiltration, hyperemia, and crypt and villus cell loss |
Gu et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 2020 [82] | Polystyrene 100 nm | 104 and 106 particles/L | 14 days | Tank water | Juvenile large yellow croaker | ↓ digestive enzymes activity (lipase, trypsin, and lysozyme) |
Kang et al., J Hazard. Mater. 2020 [83] | Polystyrene 50 nm (NP) and 45 μm (MP) | 2.5 μg/mL | 14 days | Artificial sea water | Medaka (Oryzias. melastigma) | ↑ mucus secretion (NP and MP) No variation of villus length and width (NP and MP) ↑ gut D-lactate levels (MP) ↑ gut diamine oxidase levels (NP and MP) Gut oxidative stress: NP: ↓ ROS, ↑ SOD, ↑ CAT, ↑ GST MP: ↑ ROS, ↓ SOD, ↓ CAT, no variation of GST |
Jin et al., Environ. Pollut. 2018 [84] | Polystyrene 0,5 and 50 μm | 1000 mg/L | 14 days | Tank water | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | 0.5 μm beads: ↑ gut mRNA and protein levels of IL1α, IL1β and IFN 50 μm beads: no differences |
Qiao, Sheng, et al., Sci.Total Environ. 2019 [85] | Polystyrene 5 μm | 50 & 500 μg/L | 21 days | Tank water | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | ↑ catalase and superoxide dismutase activities ↓gut D-lactate content |
Gu et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020 [86] | Polystyrene 100 nm, 5 μm, 200 μm | 500 μg/L | 21 days | Tank water | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | ↑ intestinal level of TLR2 protein (100 nm, 200 μm) ↑ mucus secretion (100 nm) Significant transcriptome variations: specific of the NP/MP type, and specific of the intestinal cell population (enterocytes, secretory cells, M1and M2 macrophages, T and B cells) |
Qiao, Deng, et al., Chemosphere. 2019 [59] | Polystyrene Beads 15 μm Fragments 4-40 μm Polypropylene Fibres 20–200 μm | 10 μg/L | 21 days | Tank water | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | ↓ mucus secretion (fibres) ↑ superoxide dismutase activity ↓ D-lactate levels ↑ Il1α levels (fragments and fibres) |
Peda et al., Environ Pollut 2016 [87] | Polyvinyl chloride < 0.3 mm | 1%w/w in food | 90 days | Food | European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L) | Histopathological alterations in the distal intestine (edema, villus desquamation, detached epithelium, and loss of epithelial structure) |
Espinosa et al., Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2017 [88] | Polyvinyl chloride Polyethylene 40–150 μm | 100 and 500 mg/kg of diet | 3 weeks | Food | Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) | PVC 500 mg/kg: ↑ goblet cells count, villus thickness, and expression of intestinal nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 Nrf2 PE 100 and 500 mg/kg: ↓ goblet cell count and villus height |
Jabeen et al., Chemosphere 2018 [89] | Ethylene vinyl acetate 0.7-5 mm fibres | 55–76 fibres per fish/day | 3 days a week for 6 weeks | Food | Goldfish (Carassius auratus) | Histologically documented inflammatory infiltration and breakage of epithelium in the proximal and distal intestine |
Limonta et al., Sci rep 2019 [90] | Irregularly shaped high density polyethylene and polystyrene particles | 100 and 1000 μg/L | 20 days | Food | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | In the intestinal epithelium: epithelial detachment, ↑ neutrophils count ↓ goblet cell count |
Lu et al., Sci.Total Environ. 2018 [91] | Polystyrene 0.5 and 50 μm | 100 and 1000 μg/L ~ 26 and 266 μg/kg bw/day* | 5 weeks | Drinking water | ICR mice (Mus musculus) | ↓ mucus secretion ↓ Muc1 transcript levels ↓ Klf4 transcript levels (1000 μg/L only) |
Jin et al., Sci.Total Environ. 2019 [60] | Polystyrene 5 μm | 100 and 1000 μg/L ~ 26 and 266 μg/kg bw/day* | 6 weeks | Drinking water | ICR mice (Mus musculus) | ↓ Muc1 and Klf4 transcript levels ↓ Cftr, Nkcc1 and Nhe3 transcription in the colon ↓ Ano1, Cftr, Slc26a6, Nkcc1and Nhe3 transcription in the ileum |
Stock et am. Arch Toxicol 2019 [92] | Polystyrene 1,4, 10 μm | 1.25, 25 and 34 mg/kg bw | 28 days | Oral gavage | C57BL/6NTac mice (Mus musculus) | Absence of histologically detectable lesions or inflammatory responses. |
Li et al., Chemosphere. 2020 [93] | Polyethylene 10–150 μm | 2–20-200 μg/g Food ~ 0.0004, 0.004 and 0.04 μg/kg bw/day* | 5 weeks | Food | C57BL/6 mice (Mus musculus) | In both colon and duodenum (200 μg/g only) ↑ histological score ↑ TLR4, AP-1 and IRF5 protein expression |
Deng et al., Environment International 2020 [94] | Polyethylene 45–53 μm | 100 mg/kg/day 5.25 104 particles/day | 30 days | Gavage | CD-1 mice (Mus musculus) | ↑ serum D-Lactate levels No variation serum diamine oxidase activity ↓ gut transcript levels of Cyp1a2, Cyp1a5, H2BMb2, H2Eb1, Aldh8a1, Scarb1 ↑ gut transcript levels of Rdh16, Gm8909 |