Shape | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical composition (doses) | Shape | Length/width (nm) (ratio) | IL-1β release | Identified mechanisms | Cell type | Reference |
Titanium rutile (20–500 μg/ml) | Spicula | 40/10 (4) | ++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis, lipid raft, lysosomal acidification and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | Macrophages | [87] |
Spheric | 30-40 (≈1) | + | Actin-mediated endocytosis, lipid raft, lysosomal acidification and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | |||
Poly(ethylene oxide) (3–100 μg/ml) | Spherical with budding | N.r. | ++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis and cathepsin B activity | Macrophages | [88] |
Spherical | N.r. | + | Actin-mediated endocytosis and Cathepsin B activity | |||
Spherical | N.r. | - | N.r. | |||
Gold (2–10 μg/ml) | Rod | 40/10 (4) | + | N.a. | Macrophages | [164] |
Spherical | 40 (≈1) | - | N.a. | |||
Cubic | 40/40/40 (≈1) | - | N.a. | |||
Carbon (2–100 μg/ml) | Needle-like MWCNT | 13 000/>50(<260) | + | Cathepsin B activity, oxydative stress, src/syk pathway and P2X7R activity | Macrophages | [37] |
Tangled MWCNT | 10 000–50 000/8 – 15(667–6250) | - | N.r. | |||
Short MWCNT | 1000 - 10 000/0,5 - 20/(50–20000) | - | N.r. | |||
Needle-like MWCNT | 4150/150 (28) | +++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis | Macrophages | [163] | |
Needle-like HTCFNW | 7600/586 (13) | ++ | N.a. | |||
Needle-like HTCFNW | 1800/365 (5) | + | Actin-mediated endocytosis |