Surface | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical composition (doses) | Surface characteristics | Radicals produced at cell surface | IL-1β release | Identified mechanisms | Cell type | Reference |
Amorphous silica (50–200 μg/ml) | Midly - | + | ++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis, lysosomal acidification and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | Macrophages | [83] |
- (−COOH) | / | + | Actin-mediated endocytosis, lysosomal acidification and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | |||
+ (−NH2) | / | - | N. r. | |||
Silanol +++ | +++ | +++ | N.a. | Macrophages | [95] | |
Silanol +++ | ++ | ++ | Independent of entry and cathepsin B release | |||
Silanol ++ | + | + | N.a. | |||
Silanol + | + | - | N.r. | |||
Polystyrene (100 μg/ml) | + (−NH2) | / | + | Oxidative stress | Macrophages | [127] |
- (−COOH) | / | - | N.r. | |||
/ | / | - | N.r. | |||
Aluminum oxyhydroxyde (500 μg/ml) | OH- +++++ | ++++ | ++++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis, lysosomal acidification and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | Monocytes and macrophages | [85] |
OH- ++++ | +++ | +++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | |||
OH- ++++ | ++ | ++ | Actin-mediated endocytosis and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | |||
OH- ++ | + | + | Actin-mediated endocytosis and cathepsin B activity, oxidative stress | |||
OH- + | + | +/− | Oxidative stress (actin-mediated endocytosis and cathepsin B activity not convincing) | |||
MWCNT (10–100 μg/ml) | Raw | / | +++ | Lysosomal damage and cathepsin B activity | Macrophages | [100] |
Purified (less Ni contamination) | / | ++ | Lysosomal damage and cathepsin B activity | |||
- (−COOH) | / | + | Cathepsin B activity |