Table 1 A summary of nanomaterial–induced lysosomal perturbation
From: Autophagy and lysosomal dysfunction as emerging mechanisms of nanomaterial toxicity
Nanomaterial | Size and charge of the nanomaterial | Models | Experimental technique used to evaluate lysosomal perturbation, e.g. lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Multi-wall carbon nanotube | <8 nm, 20–30 nm, >50 nm* | 3 T3 fibroblast; hT bronchial epithelial cells; RAW macrophages | Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence) | [35] |
mercaptopropanoic acid-coated gold nanoparticles | 5 nm; negative charge# | Mytilus edulis (blue mussel) | Neutral red retention assay in the haemolymph (loss of dye from the lysosomes to cytosol) | [36] |
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles | <100 nm# | Rainbow trout gonadal tissue (RTG-2 cells) | Neutral red retention assay (loss of dye from the lysosomes to cytosol) | [37] |
G5-PAMAM dendrimer | 5 nm; positive charge# | KB cells, a sub-line of the human cervical carcinoma HeLa cell line | Measurement of lysosomal pH using dextran-fluorescein conjugate | [38] |
Glass wool | 3-7 μm* | Mytilus edulis (blue mussel) | Neutral red retention assay (loss of dye from the lysosomes to cytosol) | [39] |
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles | 5 nm; neutral# | L929 mouse fibroblast | Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) | [40] |
Silver nanoparticles | 25 nm; negative charge# | Crassostrea virginica (Oyster) | Neutral red retention assay (loss of dye from the lysosomes to cytosol) | [41] |
Fullerene (C60) nanoparticles | ~150 nm# | Crassostrea virginica (Oyster) | Neutral red retention assay (loss of dye from the lysosomes to cytosol) | [42] |
Silica particles | Micron scale* | Mouse peritoneal macrophages | Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence) and release of lysosomal enzymes (Acid phosphatase and β-glucuronidase activity) | [43] |
TNF-bp20-K PEG monomer (38 kDa) | nanoscale* | Sprague–Dawley rats (Renal cortical tubular epithelium) | Histopathology evaluation (vacuolization) | [44] |
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles | 15 nm*, 461 nm (PBS); negative charge# | 16HBE14o-cells, human bronchial epithelial cells | Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence), Immunostaining for cytosolic cathepsin B | [45] |
Polyalkyl-sulfonated C60 | nanoscale* | Sprague–Dawley rats (liver and kidney) | Histopathology, TEM | [46] |
Zinc oxide nanoparticles | 10 nm*, 229 nm in PBS + 5 % mouse serum#; negative charge (in PBS + 5 % mouse serum)# | THP-1 cells, human monocytic cell line | Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence) | [47] |
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles | Nanospheres 60–200 nm, Long nanobelts 15–30 μm, Short nanobelts 0.8-4 μm; slightly negative# | C57BL/6 alveolar macrophages | TEM, cytosolic cathepsin B, Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence) | [48] |
Polystyrene nanoparticles | 110 nm; positive charge# | Human macrophages | Cytosolic cathepsin B, Acridine orange staining (change from lysosomal red to cytosolic green fluorescence) | [49] |